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《哈他瑜伽之光》（印）斯瓦特玛拉摩 著，是14-16世纪之间的书，是哈达瑜伽的集大成经典。艾扬格大师也一直参考它。该中文版不仅翻译了它，而且有非常好的注释（印度瑜伽教授注释）。
《哈他瑜伽之光》摘读（一）
一、瑜伽与瑜伽的概念
瑜伽是什么？瑜伽这一术语源自梵语yuj。这个动词有两种含义：（1）整合；（2）联结。瑜伽的这种含义在有关瑜伽的古典著作中得到了应用。
《帕坦家里的瑜伽经》的第一个评论者曾在其评论中写道：瑜伽既是三摩地。
另有一些瑜伽著作者们则认为词根“yoj”的含义是联接。个体自我和至上自我的联接就是瑜伽。
《薄伽梵歌》还把瑜伽一词用于“瑜伽是消除所有痛苦的一种方法”这一含义。
有关瑜伽最成体系的著作是帕坦伽利的《瑜伽经》。帕坦伽利把瑜伽定义为“控制心的意识波动”也是引导人们抵达三摩地的那种状态。
人们通常是自己心意的奴隶。瑜伽是一种方法。通过瑜伽这一方法，人们能够让心意成为自己的奴隶。这是帕坦伽利《瑜伽经》告诉我们的。
我们发现，基于瑜伽的构成成分/效果来理解瑜伽在当代更加流行。在瑜伽练习过程中，体位法和调息法占有更为重要的地位。瑜伽被理解为一种形体练习的方法，它可以增加身体的忍耐力和柔韧性。然而，这类体系是在非常有限的意义上理解哈他瑜伽的。
瑜伽有关于人类的完整信息。它有关于人体的信息，有关于人心的信息，也有关于人灵性的信息……
&&&可以把重要的瑜伽学派分为两大类：
第一类是薄瓦那瑜伽（Bhavana
yoga），这类瑜伽着重培养心意对世界的客观对象的正确态度。其主要的瑜伽学派包括：智慧瑜伽、虔信瑜伽和行动瑜伽。
第二类是普拉纳-商雅玛瑜伽（Prana samyama
yoga），这类瑜伽的重点在于：为了控制心意而控制呼吸。其主要瑜伽学派包括：曼陀罗瑜伽、哈他瑜伽、拉亚瑜伽和胜王瑜伽。
二、哈他瑜伽及其传统
哈他瑜伽是什么？
哈他瑜伽是与控制生命气有关的一种瑜伽，它能够通过控制呼吸来达到控制生命气的目的。
在现代社会，人们错误地把哈他瑜伽翻译成身体瑜伽，这是人们错误地认为哈他瑜伽是为了身体的瑜伽。但是，关于哈他瑜伽的正确理解是“通过控制生命气或呼吸的瑜伽”。
哈(Ha)代表“太阳”“右脉”“热原则”或“右鼻腔”。“达”(tha)代表“月亮”“左脉”“冷原则”或“左鼻腔”。我们全部的个性品质都受到我们呼吸方式的引导。呼吸与心意的运行有着直接的关系。精神的状态会直接影响到我们的呼吸模式上，反之亦然。
哈他瑜伽认为，人的寿命与呼吸的总次数之间存在一定的关系。每个人具有的确定数量的呼吸次数，就是他寿命的限度，而非生存的年数。快速的消耗（呼吸次数）将会缩减寿命。相反，渐缓消耗（呼吸次数）就会延长寿命。渐缓消耗必须是自主的行为，而不是被迫的非自住的行为。
斯瓦特玛拉摩把哈达瑜伽分为四支或四个组成部分。他们分别是：体位法 、住气法、身印和谛听秘音。
“哈达瑜伽”这一名称本身所暗示的，它是“通过哈达的瑜伽”。哈达的意思是控制和平衡“哈”和“达”。众所周知，“哈”代表右脉和右鼻腔，“达”代表左脉和左鼻腔。
控制心意是瑜伽的目的，通过各种身体的练习可以较好地、容易地获得成就。
瑜伽的所以方法，可以是帕坦伽利的阿斯汤伽（Ashtanga）瑜伽练习，也可以是哈他瑜伽练习，哈他瑜伽诸如体味、调息（住气）、收束法、洁净法、身印，也包括冥想，为精神的平衡或者个性的综合做了贡献。另一个与哈他瑜伽练习有关的重要方面是，人们发现，对于治疗很多功能性疾病这种瑜伽高度有效。因此，在现代，它在治疗方面的作用起到了极大地促进。
哈他瑜伽士相信，生成的对立两极（男性和女性，热和冷，快乐和悲伤）产生痛苦，引发疾病和虚妄。哈达瑜伽这个特有的名称，是意指太阳的“哈”与意指月亮的“达”的综合体，表示了对立的统一。哈达也意味着一种力量，或者坚决的努力。
哈达瑜伽意味着，采用多种力量、训练和努力将相反的力量统一在一起，并把身体与心灵结合在一起。对于哈达瑜伽练习者来说，其最大的障碍包括贪婪、憎恨、虚妄、自私和依附。
第一章 体位法
（注：此章阅读摘记中，加粗字体是经文部分的摘记，未加粗字体
为书中注释文字摘记）
哈达瑜伽并不是为了身体的瑜伽，而是通过身体的瑜伽。
哈达瑜伽有两个目的：一是消除痛苦；二是为所以类型的瑜伽提供基础。
饮食过度、努力过度、说话过度、循规蹈矩（过度）、交往过度、心浮气躁——这六个因素妨碍瑜伽练习，或者使之变得无效。
热情、勇气、耐心、果断以及弃绝过多的人际交往，这六个因素将成就瑜伽。
由于哈他瑜伽的起手部分是体位，所以首先描述体位。体位练习可以使肢体平衡、健康和柔软。
体位可以从两方面加以定义：身体的以及超越身体的。（1）身体效果。涉及身体的柔软与力量。（2）心理效果。体位的精神效果更重要。心理稳定以及愉悦是体位练习效果中很重要的两个方面。（3）治疗效果。体位将带来健康，消除疾病。
背部伸展式是诸种体位中居于首位的体式，它引导生命气到达中脉，激发胃火，减少腰部肥胖，是练习者脱离疾病。
如同禁制中的节制饮食、劝制中的不害，成就的瑜伽士认为至善坐是所有提位中最好的体位。
在全部84种体位中，要持之以恒地练习至善坐，因为它是所有72000条静脉中的杂质的净化者。
观照自我，节制饮食，练习十二年至善坐，练习者可获得瑜伽的成就。
一旦获得至善坐的成就，如此之多的其他体位还有什么作用？在自发式住气中小心保留生命气，仅仅经由它可毫不费力地导致温曼尼卡拉，即胜王瑜伽之境界。
通过各种不同的体位，伟大的瑜伽士在消除了疲惫之后，练习经脉净化以及与生命气有关的练习如身印等。
（练习瑜伽者）梵行具足，饮食节制，弃绝一切，专注于瑜伽练习，在一年多的时间内会或得成就。在这一过程中，不应该产生任何其他的想法（即不应有所怀疑）。
哈他瑜伽的练习次序是：体位法、住气法（呼吸法）、被称为身印的不同类型的技巧、谛听秘音。
均衡饮食就是：食物可口，甜的，（给胃）流出四分之一的空间，为取悦内在之神希瓦而饮食。
下列食物应被认为是没有益处的：反复加热的、干的、太咸的、太酸的、没有益处的绿色蔬菜，这些都是被禁止的食物。
根据《薄伽梵歌》，不吃或吃得太饱被认为是没有任何益处。
六十天长成的小麦、稻米、大麦等谷物，牛奶、酥油、棕榈糖、黄油、糖、蜂蜜、干姜、黄瓜、水果等，物种绿叶蔬菜、黑绿豆、雨水，这些食物品种对于瑜伽练习者都是有益的。
瑜伽士应该食用有益于健康的食物，如甜的、润滑的、牛奶做的、对身体的基本元素有营养的、适合个人口味和心意的，以及有益的和满足（瑜伽食物之）所有条件的食物。
年轻人、老年人、很老的人、病人和体弱者。只要不懒惰，都可以获得瑜伽的成就。
只有瑜伽练习者才能在瑜伽中获得成就。非练习者如何可能获得（成功）？只靠阅读经典，不能获得瑜伽成就。
成就瑜伽背后的原因不是穿着特别的服装或口头谈论它。唯有练习才是成就背后的原因。这就是真理，不要怀疑它。
在没有达到胜王瑜伽及三摩地的成就之前，（必须练习）各种体位法、不同的住气法、各种神奇的身印。
斯瓦特玛拉摩撰写的《哈他瑜伽之光》第一章就此结束。
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将瑜伽和健身球混搭一下，健身一下子就变得有趣多了，更容易长期坚持，简简单单的几个动作，也能练就好身材…
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主编：毕岩 020-5编辑：贝学文 020-3广告联系： 010-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Male and female
from 17th- and 18th-century India
This article contains . Without proper , you may see , misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.
Yoga (; , ????, ) is a group of , , and
practices or disciplines which originated in . There is a broad variety of yoga schools, practices, and goals in , , and . Among the most well-known types of yoga are
The origins of yoga have been speculated to date back to pre- it is mentioned in the , but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, in ancient India's
movements. The chronology of earliest texts describing yoga-practices is unclear, varyingly credited to . The
date from the first half of the 1st millennium CE, but only gained prominence in the West in the 20th century. Hatha yoga texts emerged around the 11th century with origins in .
Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the West, following the success of
in the late 19th and early 20th century. In the 1980s, yoga became popular as a system of
across the Western world. Yoga in Indian traditions, however, is more th it has a meditative and spiritual core. One of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism is also called , which has its own epistemology and metaphysics, and is closely related to Hindu
philosophy.
Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a complementary intervention for , , , and heart disease. The results of these studies have been mixed and inconclusive. On December 1, 2016, yoga was listed by
in , , , performing yogic meditation in the
In , the word yoga comes from the root yuj which means "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach" in it as such. By figurative extension from the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses , the word took on broader meanings such as "employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses of "to " as in "to put something to some use"). All further developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic moods such as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also found in .
There are very many
containing yoga in Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact", "union", "method", "application", "addition" and "performance". In simpler words, Yoga also means "combined". For example, gu?áyoga means "contact with a cord"; chakráyoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh)"; chandráyoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the moon with a constellation"; pu?yoga is a grammatical term expressing "connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhaktiyoga means "devoted attachment" in the
. The term
has a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the same compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras (2.1), designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday life
According to , a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, the root yuj samādhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology. In accordance with Pā?ini,
who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga Sutras, states that yoga means
(concentration).
According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samādhau (to concentrate). Someone who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of commitment is called a
(may be applied to a man or a woman) or
(traditionally denoting a woman).
The term yoga has been defined in various ways in the many different Indian philosophical and religious traditions.
Source Text
Definition of Yoga
"When the five senses, along with the mind, remain still and the intellect is not active, that is known as the highest state. They consider yoga to be firm restraint of the senses. Then one becomes un-distracted for yoga is the arising and the passing away" (6.10-11)
"Yoga is said to be equanimity" (2.48); "Yoga is skill in action" (2.50); "Know that which is called yoga to be separation from contact with suffering" (6.23).
- Sravakabhumi
"Yoga is fourfold: faith, aspiration, perseverance and means" (2.152)
"Yoga is the suppression of the activities of the mind" (1.2)
"Pleasure and suffering arise as a result of the drawing together of the sense organs, the mind and objects. When that does not happen because the mind is in the self, there is no pleasure or suffering for one who is embodied. That is yoga" (5.2.15-16)
Kaundinya's Pancarthabhasya on the
"In this system, yoga is the union of the self and the Lord" (I.I.43)
"By the word 'yoga' is meant nirvana, the condition of Siva." (I.8.5a)
-bhasya of
"It is said in the treatises on yoga: 'Yoga is the means of perceiving reality." (2.1.3)
"The union of apana and prana, one's own rajas and semen, the sun and moon, the individual soul and the supreme soul, and in the same way the union of all dualities, is called yoga. " (89)
The ultimate goal of Yoga is
(liberation), although the exact definition of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system with which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five principal meanings:
Yoga, as a disciplined method
Yoga, as techniques of controlling t
Yoga, as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (dar?ana);
Yoga, in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and laya-," referring to traditions specialising in particula
Yoga, as the goal of Yoga practice."
According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century CE onward, the core principles of "yoga" were more or less in place, and variations of these principles developed in various forms over time:
Yoga, is a meditative means of discovering dysfunctional perception and cognition, as well as overcoming it for release from suffering, inner illustration of this principle is found in Hindu texts such as the
and , in a number of Buddhist Mahāyāna works, as well as J
Yoga, as the raising and expansion of consciousness from oneself to being coextensive with eve these are discussed in sources such as in Hinduism Vedic literature and its Epic , Jainism Pra?amaratiprakarana, and Buddhist N
Yoga, as a path to omniscience and enlightened consciousness enabling one to comprehend the impermanent (illusive, delusive) and permanent (true, transcendent) examples are found in Hinduism
school texts as well as Buddhism Mādhyamaka texts, b
Yoga, as a technique for entering into other bodies, generating multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernat these are, states White, described in
literature of Hinduism and Buddhism, as well as the Buddhist Sāma?? James Mallinson, however, disagrees and suggests that such fringe practices are far removed from the mainstream Yoga's goal as meditation-driven means to liberation in Indian religions.
White clarifies that the last principle relates to legendary goals of "yogi practice", different from practical goals of "yoga practice," as they are viewed in South Asian thought and practice since the beginning of the Common Era, in the various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain philosophical schools.
The term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices and methods, including Jain and Buddhist practices. In Hinduism these include , , ,
The so-called
refers to Ashtanga Yoga, the eight limbs to be practiced to attain samadhi, as described in the . The term raja yoga originally referred to the ultimate goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi, but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Yoga is considered as a philosophical school in Hinduism. Yoga, in this context, is one of the six
schools of Hinduism (those which accept the Vedas as source of knowledge).
Due to the influence of Vivekananda, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are nowadays considered as the foundational scripture of classical yoga, a status which it only acquired in the 20th century. Before the twentieth century, other works were considered as the most central works, such as the
and the , while Tantric Yoga and Hatha Yoga prevailed over Ashtanga Yoga.
equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy, It is often called "Rāja yoga", "yoga of the kings," a term which originally referred to the ultimate, royal goal of yoga, which is usually samadhi, but was popularised by Vivekananda as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices, systematic exercises and self-development techniques for body, mind and spirit. Its
() is same as the
school. Both accept three reliable means to knowledge – perception (pratyāk?a, direct sensory observations), inference (anumāna) and testimony of trustworthy experts (sabda, agama). Both these orthodox schools are also strongly . Unlike the Sā?khya school of Hinduism, which pursues a non-theistic/atheistic rationalist approach, the Yoga school of Hinduism accepts the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god". Along with its epistemology and metaphysical foundations, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy incorporates ethical precepts ( and ) and an introspective way of life focused on perfecting one's self physically, mentally and spiritually, with the ultimate goal being kaivalya (liberated, unified, content state of existence).
A sculpture of , a celebrated 11th century yogi of Nath tradition and a major proponent of Hatha yoga.
Hatha yoga, also called hatha , is a kind of yoga focusing on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described primarily in three texts of :
(15th century)
, author unknown (1500 or late 17th century)
by Gheranda (late 17th century)
Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored by
of the 11th century in the above list. Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today.
Buddhism, founded by the Indian , has a series of asanas and pranayamas, such as
(Sanskrit ca??ālī) and
which parallel hatha yoga.
In , yoga is used to unite
with . See also 'tantra' below.
16th century Buddhist artwork in Yoga posture.
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of
techniques that aim to develop , , , , and .
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient
and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions.
pursue meditation as part of the path toward
and . The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are
Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in
along with the . Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom. It aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and inauspicious Artta and Raudra Dhyana.[]
Samuel states that
is a contested concept. Tantra yoga may be described, according to Samuel, as practices in 9th to 10th century Buddhist and Hindu (Saiva, Shakti) texts, which included yogic practices with elaborate deity visualizations using geometrical arrays and drawings (), fierce male and particularly female deities, transgressive life stage related rituals, extensive use of
and , and sexual techniques, all aimed to help one's health, long life and liberation.
The origins of yoga are a matter of debate. There is no consensus on its chronology or specific origin other than that yoga developed in ancient India. Suggested origins are the
( BCE) and pre-Vedic , the
( BCE), and the
movement. According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist between those various traditions:
[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal.
Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE. Between 200 BCE–500 CE philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge. The Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy.
Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements. Some state yoga originated in the Indus Valley Civilization. Marshall, Eliade and other scholars suggest that the
discovered in Indus Valley Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose. This interpretation is considered speculative and uncertain by more recent analysis of Srinivasan and may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".
According to Crangle, some researchers have favoured a linear theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan genesis", just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the ultimate source of all spiritual knowledge. Thomas McEvilley favors a composite model where pre-Aryan yoga prototype existed in the pre-Vedic period and its refinement began in the Vedic period.
, concentration and bodily postures described in the
may have been precursors to yoga. According to Geoffrey Samuel, "Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic] practices developed in the same ascetic circles as the early
movements (Buddhists,
and ), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE."
According to Zimmer, Yoga philosophy is reckoned to be part of the non-Vedic system, which also includes the
school of , Jainism and Buddhism: "[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of northeastern India [Bihar] – being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other non-Vedic Indian systems."
The first use of the root of word "yoga" is in hymn 5.81.1 of the , a dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), where it has been interpreted as "yoke" or "yogically control".
The earliest evidence of Yogis and Yoga tradition is found in the
hymn 10.136 of the Rigveda, states Karel Werner.
The Yogis of Vedic times left little evidence of their existence, practices and achievements. And such evidence as has survived in the Vedas is scanty and indirect. Nevertheless, the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted.
— Karel Werner, Yoga and the ?g Veda
Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga and there is little evidence as to what the practices were. Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in , the earliest Hindu Upanishad. For example, the practice of
(consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of
(concentrating all of one's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of
(c. 800–700 BCE).
Ascetic practices (), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic priests to conduct
(sacrifice), might have been precursors to yoga. Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the , emphasized on bodily postures which may have evolved into yogic . Early
also contain references to other group ascetics such as munis, the , and vratyas. Techniques for controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in the
(texts of the Vedic corpus, c.
BCE) and the Atharvaveda.
of the Rig Veda suggests the presence of an early contemplative tradition.
Yoga concepts begin to emerge in the texts of c. 500–200 BCE such as the Pali Canon, the middle Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and
The first known appearance of the word "yoga", with the same meaning as the modern term, is in the , probably composed between the fifth and third century BCE, where it is defined as the steady control of the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leading to a supreme state. Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being ?tman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness. It is the earliest literary work that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. White states:
The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Katha Upanisad (Ku), a scripture dating from about the third century BCE[…] [I]t describes the hierarchy of mind-body constituents—the senses, mind, intellect, etc.—that comprise the foundational categories of Sāmkhya philosophy, whose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Yogasutras, Bhagavad Gita, and other texts and schools (Ku3.10–11; 6.7–8).
The hymns in Book 2 of the , another late first millennium BCE text, states a procedure in which the body is held in upright posture, the breath is restrained and mind is meditatively focussed, preferably inside a cave or a place that is simple, plain, of silence or gently flowing water, with no noises nor harsh winds.
The , likely composed in a later century than Katha and Shvetashvatara Upanishads but before Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, mentions sixfold yoga method – breath control (pranayama), introspective withdrawal of senses (pratyahara), meditation (dhyana), mind concentration (dharana), philosophical inquiry/creative reasoning (tarka), and absorption/intense spiritual union (samadhi).
In addition to the Yoga discussion in above , twenty
as well as related texts such as , composed in 1st and 2nd millennium CE, discuss Yoga methods.
Yoga is discussed in the ancient foundational
school of Hinduism, dated to have been composed sometime between 6th and 2nd century BCE discusses Yoga. According to , an Indologist known for his studies on early Buddhism and Hinduism and a professor at the University of Lausanne, Vai?e?ika Sūtra describes Yoga as "a state where the mind resides only in the soul and therefore not in the senses". This is equivalent to pratyahara or withdrawal of the senses, and the ancient Sutra asserts that this leads to an absence of sukha (happiness) and dukkha (suffering), then describes additional yogic meditation steps in the journey towards the state of spiritual liberation.
Similarly,
– the foundational text of the
school of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1.3, 2.1.223 and others. Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE, and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain "subtlety of body" and other powers. The
– the foundational text of the
school, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE, discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics,
(meditation), , and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga.
reached India in the 4th century BCE. Along with his army, he took Greek academics with him who later wrote memoirs about geography, people and customs they saw. One of Alexander's companion was , quoted in Book 15, Sections 63–65 by , who describes yogins of India. Onesicritus claims those Indian yogins (Mandanis ) practiced aloofness and "different postures – standing or sitting or lying naked – and motionless".
Onesicritus also mentions his colleague Calanus trying to meet them, who is initially denied audience, but later invited because he was sent by a "king curious of wisdom and philosophy". Onesicritus and Calanus learn that the yogins consider the best doctrine of life as "rid the spirit of not only pain, but also pleasure", that "man trains the body for toil in order that his opinions may be strengthened", that "there is no shame in life on frugal fare", and that "the best place to inhabit is one with scantiest equipment or outfit". These principles are significant to the history of spiritual side of yoga. These may reflect the ancient roots of "undisturbed calmness" and "mindfulness through balance" in later works of Hindu
and Buddhist
respectively, as well as the principle of
(non-possessiveness, non-craving, simple living) and
discussed in later Hinduism and Jainism.[]
Werner states, "The Buddha was the founder of his [Yoga] system, even though, admittedly, he made use of some of the experiences he had previously gained under various Yoga teachers of his time." He notes:
But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the
that we can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved for us in its entirety.
The chronology of completion of these yoga-related Pali Canons, however, is unclear, just like ancient Hindu texts. Early known Buddhist sources like the Majjhima Nikāya mention meditation, while the Anguttara Nikāya describes Jhāyins (meditators) that resemble early Hindu descriptions of Muni, Kesins and meditating ascetics, but these meditation-practices are not called yoga in these texts. The earliest known specific discussion of yoga in the Buddhist literature, as understood in modern context, is from the third- to fourth-century CE scriptures of the Buddhist Yogācāra school and fourth- to fifth-century
of Buddhaghosa.
A yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga. But since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from other schools. Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads and some Pali canons are lost to time.
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of which the Buddha borrowed from the ?rama?a tradition. The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage. However, there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the
as in true . The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to stimulate Kundalini.
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in the Upanishadic tradition. The earliest reference to meditation is in the , one of the oldest Upanishads.
describes the five kinds of vital energies (). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and veins () are also described in the Upanishad.
defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.
narrating the
The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation, it introduces three prominent types of yoga:
: The yoga of action.
: The yoga of devotion.
: The yoga of knowledge.
The Gita consists of 18 chapters and 700 shlokas (verses), with each chapter named as a different yoga, thus delineating eighteen different yogas. Some scholars divide the Gita into three sections, with the first six chapters with 280 shlokas dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six containing 209 shlokas with Bhakti yoga, and the last six chapters with 211 shlokas as J however, this is rough because elements of karma, bhakti and jnana are found in all chapters.
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti Parva) of the Mahabharata. The verses of the section are dated to c. 300–200 BCE[]. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like vichara (subtle reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to Patanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not described. There is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata. Separation of self from matter, perceiving
everywhere, entering into Brahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated together and some verses describe them as being identical. Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.
Mahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the individual
with the universal
that pervades all things.
This period witnessed many texts of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices. Of these, Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are considered as a key work.
During the period between the
eras (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) philosophical schools of ,
were taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.
Yoga as a philosophy is mentioned in Sanskrit texts dated to be completed between 200 BCE–200 CE. Kau?ilya's
in verse 1.2.10, for example, states that there are three categories of anviksikis (philosophies) –
(nontheistic), Yoga (theistic) and
(atheistic materialism).
Many traditions in India began to adopt systematic methodology by about first century CE. Of these,
was probably one of the oldest philosophies to begin taking a systematic form. Patanjali systematized Yoga, building them on the foundational metaphysics of Samkhya. In the early works, the Yoga principles appear together with the Samkhya ideas. Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, also called the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the Sankhya Philosophy), describes the relation between the two systems. The two schools have some differences as well. Yoga accepted the conception of "personal god", while Samkhya developed as a rationalist, non-theistic/atheistic system of Hindu philosophy. Sometimes Patanjali's system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya.
The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that
says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord."
Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent .
In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six
(which accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical schools. Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian Philosophy, believes that the process of systematization of yoga which began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
There are numerous parallels in the concepts in ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma Buddhist schools of thought, particularly from 2nd century BCE to 1st century AD, notes Larson. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras is a synthesis of these three traditions. From Samkhya, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three
methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhist's concept of no self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and soul. The third concept Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient
traditions of meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from middle Upanishads such as Katha, Shvetashvatara and Maitri.
Patanjali's Yoga Sutras are widely regarded as the first compilation of the formal yoga philosophy. The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse. Many later Indian scholars studied them and published their commentaries, such as the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350–450 CE). Patanjali's yoga is also referred to as Raja yoga. Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his second sutra:
???????????????????????
(yoga? citta-v?tti-nirodha?)
- Yoga Sutras 1.2
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms.
translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodha?) of the modifications (v?tti) of the mind (citta)".
translates the sutra as "Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."
explains that, to Patanjali, "Yoga essentially consists of meditative practices culminating in attaining a state of consciousness free from all modes of active or discursive thought, and of eventually attaining a state where consciousness is unaware of any object external to itself, that is, is only aware of its own nature as consciousness unmixed with any other object."
If the meaning of yoga is understood as the practice of
(mental control), then its goal is "the unqualified state of niruddha (the perfection of that process)", according to . In that context, "yoga (union) implies duality (as in joining of two things or principles); the result of yoga is the nondual state", and "as the union of the lower self and higher Self. The nondual state is characterized by the abse it can be described as eternal peace, pure love, Self-realization, or liberation."
Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as "Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept is derived from the 29th Sutra of the Book 2 of Yoga Sutras. They are:
(The five "abstentions"):
(Non-violence, non-harming other living beings),
(truthfulness, non-falsehood),
(non-stealing),
(celibacy, fidelity to one's partner), and
(non-avarice, non-possessiveness).
(The five "observances"):
(purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),
(contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),
(persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),
(study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas), and
(contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).
: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the seated position used for meditation.
("Breath exercises"): Prāna, breath, "āyāma", to "stretch, extend, restrain, stop".
("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from external objects.
("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.
("Meditation"): Intense contemplation of the nature of the object of meditation.
("Liberation"): merging consciousness with the object of meditation.
Yoga and Vedanta are the two largest surviving schools of Hindu traditions. They share many thematic principles, concepts and belief in self/soul, but diverge in degree, style and some of their methods. Epistemologically, Yoga school accepts three means to reliable knowledge, while Advaita Vedanta accepts six ways. Yoga disputes the
of Advaita Vedanta. Yoga school believes that in the state of , each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as an
Advaita Vedanta, in contrast, believes that in the state of , each individual discovers the blissful, liberating sense of himself or herself as part of Oneness with everything, everyone and the Universal Self. They both hold that the free conscience is aloof yet transcendent, liberated and self-aware. Further, Advaita Vedanta school enjoins the use of Patanjali's yoga practices and the reading of Upanishads for those seeking the supreme good, ultimate freedom and .
?????? ??? ????????? ??????????????????
sa?yogo yoga ityukto jīvātma-paramātmano??
Yoga is union of the individual self (jivātma) with the supreme self (paramātma).
is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic sage . It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and , a renowned philosopher. The text contains 12 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century CE. Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya. The Yoga Yajnavalkya discusses eight yoga
– Swastika, Gomukha, Padma, Vira, Simha, Bhadra, Mukta and Mayura, numerous breathing exercises for body cleansing, and meditation.
Tirthankara
in Yogic meditation in the
According to , 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body.
calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or
as well as one of the essentials——in the path to liberation. In his Niyamasara, Acarya , describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion. Acarya
and Acarya
mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain
like Prof.
to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The
or the constraints of the
bear a resemblance to the , indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga can be see in 's
which outlines an eightfold yoga influenced by Patanjali's eightfold yoga.
In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development of , the
movement arises during the
(4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a "yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the . The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach enlightenment.
Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged in this period.
was a development in medieval Hinduism which advocated the concept of a
(or ""). The movement was initiated by the
of South India in the 6th to 9th centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout India by the 12th to 15th centuries. Shaiva and
bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga Sutras, such as the practical meditative exercises, with devotion.
elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called viraha (separation) bhakti. Viraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Krishna.
Tantra is a genre of yoga that arose in India no later than the 5th century CE. George Samuel states, "Tantra" is a contested term, but may be considered as a school whose practices appeared in mostly complete form in Buddhist and Hindu texts by about 10th century CE. Over its history, some ideas of Tantra school influenced the , , , and
traditions. Elements of Tantric yoga rituals were adopted by and influenced state functions in medieval Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms in
By the turn of the first millennium,
emerged from .
is also known as Tantric Buddhism and Tantrayāna. Its texts were compiled starting with 7th century and Tibetan translations were completed in 8th century CE. These tantra yoga texts were the main source of Buddhist knowledge that was imported into Tibet. They were later translated into Chinese and other Asian languages, helping spread ideas of Tantric Buddhism. The Buddhist text
and Caryāgiti introduced hierarchies of chakras. Yoga is a significant practice in Tantric Buddhism.
The tantra yoga practices include asanas and breathing exercises. The Nyingma tradition practices
(Tib. "Trul khor"), a discipline that includes breath work (or pranayama), meditative contemplation and other exercises. In the
tradition, the path of meditation practice is divided into further stages, such as , Upa yoga, Yoga yana, ,
traditions also include Kriya, Upa (called "Charya"), and Yoga, with the
class substituting for Mahayoga and Atiyoga.
, the name of which derives from the Sanskrit "dhyāna" via the Chinese "ch'an" is a form of . Yoga practices integrally exist within the Zen Buddhist school. Certain essential elements of yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.
The earliest references to hatha yoga are in Buddhist works dating from the eighth century. The earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 11th century Buddhist text Vimalaprabha, which defines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras with posture and breathing exercises. It marks the development of asanas (plural) into the full body 'postures' now in popular usage and, along with its many modern variations, is the style that many people associate with the word yoga today.
Various yogic groups had become prominent in
in the 15th and 16th century, when
was in its nascent stage. Compositions of , the founder of Sikhism, describe many dialogues he had with , a Hindu community which practiced yoga. Guru Nanak rejected the austerities, rites and rituals connected with Hatha Yoga. He propounded the path of Sahaja yoga or Nama yoga (meditation on the name) instead. The
Listen "O Yogi, Nanak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. The devotee must meditate on the Word Divine. It is His grace which brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Good deeds help one merge into Divination."
The Ustrasana, also known as the camel pose, is one of several yoga asana (pose).
Yoga came to the attention of an educated western public in the mid-19th century along with other topics of Indian philosophy. In the context of this budding interest,
published his Treatise on Yoga Philosophy in 1851.
The first Hindu teacher to actively advocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a western audience, , toured Europe and the United States in the 1890s. The reception which Swami Vivekananda received built on the active interest of intellectuals, in particular the , among them
(), who drew on
and the interest of philosophers and scholars like
(), the brothers
(), and others who had (to varying degrees) interests in things Indian.
also had a large influence on the American public's view of Yoga. Esoteric views current at the end of the 19th century provided a further basis for the reception of Vedanta and of Yoga with its theory and practice of correspondence between the spiritual and the physical. The reception of Yoga and of Vedanta thus entwined with each other and with the (mostly -based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and
throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. , himself rooted in the Romanian currents of these traditions,[] brought a new element into the reception of Yoga with the strong emphasis on Tantric Yoga in his seminal book: Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. With the introduction of the Tantra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the "transcendent" to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the "transcendent" ("Atman-Brahman" in Advaitic theory) in the mind to the body itself.
The American born yogi by the name of , after his travels through the lands of Kashmir and Bengal, founded the Tantrik Order of America in 1905. His teachings gave many westerners their first glimpse into the practices of yoga and tantra.
The modern scientific study of yoga began with the works of
and Major D. Basu in the late 19th century, and then continued in the 20th century with Sri Yogendra () and . Western medical researchers came to 's , starting in 1928, to study Yoga as a science.
Outside of Buddhist, Hindu and Jain traditions in Asia, the term "yoga" has been usually synonymous with its
(postures) or as a . This aspect of Yoga was adopted as a cultural trend in Europe and North America starting in the first half of the 20th century. There were periods of criticism and paranoia against yoga as well. By the 1960s, western interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, giving rise to a great number of
schools specifically advocated to a western public. During this period, most of the influential Indian teachers of yoga came from two lineages, those of
(). Teachers of Hatha yoga who were active in the west in this period included
to the United States in 1969. Comprehensive, classical teachings of Ashtanga Yoga, , the subtle body theory, Fitness Asanas, and tantric elements were included in the yoga teachers training by
(1923–), in the United States and Canada.
A second "yoga boom" followed in the 1980s, as , a follower of , connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of
circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination. Numerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly overlapped with 19th and early-20th century Western exercise traditions.
A group of people practicing yoga in 2012.
Since 2001, the popularity of yoga in the USA has expanded. The number of people who practiced some form of yoga has grown from 4 million (in 2001) to 20 million (in 2011). It has drawn support from world leaders such as
who stated, "Yoga has become a universal language of spiritual exercise in the United States, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... Every day, millions of people practice yoga to improve their health and overall well-being. That's why we're encouraging everyone to take part in PALA (Presidential Active Lifestyle Award), so show your support for yoga and answer the challenge".
supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy individuals as long as properly-trained professionals deliver instruction. The College cites yoga's promotion of "profound mental, physical and spiritual awareness" and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.
Yoga has been studied and may be recommended to promote relaxation, reduce stress and improve some medical conditions such as . Yoga is considered to be a low-impact activity that can provide the same benefits as "any well-designed exercise program, increasing general health and stamina, reducing stress, and improving those conditions brought about by sedentary lifestyles". It is particularly promoted as a
routine, and as a regimen to strengthen and balance all parts of the body.
Yoga may improve psychological health during cancer treatment, although more evidence is needed to confirm this possible benefit. Other research indicated that yoga could be a useful in addition to other treatments in , and may have positive effects on , although the quality of research to define these effects is low.
In 2015 the
published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by . Yoga was one of 17 practices evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly In 2017 the Australian government named yoga as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would "ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence".
While some of the medical community regards the results of yoga research as significant, others point to many flaws which undermine results. Much of the research on yoga has taken the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of low methodological quality, including small sample sizes, inadequate , lack of randomization, and high risk of bias. A 2013 review described the effectiveness of yoga for
in the short-term, and moderate evidence that it was effective in the long-term. Another study found an incidence of back injuries from yoga.
Some clinicians have reported studies investigating yoga as a complementary intervention for cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and to increase anxiety control. Others have questioned the quality of research and uncertainty in proving this effect.
A 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis found no evidence that yoga was effective for .
Some yoga practitioners suffer physical injuries analogous to sports injuries. A survey of yoga practitioners in Australia showed that about 20% had suffered some physical injury while practicing yoga. In the previous 12 months 4.6% of the respondents had suffered an injury producing prolonged pain or requiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross-legged position), forward bends, backward bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of injuries.
Yoga may result in injuries
Among the main reasons that experts cite for causing negative effects from yoga are beginners' competitiveness and instructors' lack of qualification. As the demand for yoga classes grows, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often with relatively little training. Not every newly certified instructor can evaluate the condition of every new trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to avoid injuries. In turn, a beginning yoga student can overestimate the abilities of their body and strive to do advanced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them.
, a tear in the arteries in the neck which provide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck while the neck is extended. This can occur in a variety of contexts, but is an event which could occur in some yoga practices. This is a very serious condition which can result in a .
, damage to the structure joining the femur and the hip, have been reported to have resulted from yoga practice.
It is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief: many school districts have considered incorporating yoga into their Physical Education programs. The Encinitas, California school district gained a San Diego Superior Court Judge's approval to use yoga in Physical Education, holding against the parents who claimed the practice was intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program.
Some Christians integrate yoga and other aspects of Eastern spirituality with prayer and meditation. This has been attributed to a desire to experience God in a more complete way. In 2013, Monsignor , servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (), said that for his , a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (, yoga, controlled respiration, ), quoting : "Just as "the
rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions," neither should these ways be rejected out of hand simply because they are not Christian. On the contrary, one can take from them what is useful so long as the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements are never obscured. It is within the context of all of this that these bits and pieces should be taken up and expressed anew." Previously, the , and some other Christian organizations have expressed concerns and disapproval with respect to some eastern and
practices that include yoga and meditation.
In 1989 and 2003, the
issued two documents:
and "," that were mostly critical of eastern and New Age practices. The 2003 document was published as a 90-page handbook detailing the Vatican's position. The Vatican warned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation "can degenerate into a cult of the body" and that equating bodily states with mysticism "could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral deviations." Such has been compared to the early days of Christianity, when the church opposed the gnostics' belief that salvation came not through faith but through a mystical inner knowledge. The letter also says, "one can see if and how [prayer] might be enriched by meditation methods developed in other religions and cultures" but maintains the idea that "there must be some fit between the nature of [other approaches to] prayer and Christian beliefs about ultimate reality." Some[]
Christian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible with their religious background, considering it a part of the
inconsistent with Christianity.
Another view holds that Christian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. This is held by an interdenominational association of Christians that practice it. "The ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational activity and a sail that allows institutional boundaries to be crossed."
In early 11th century, the Persian scholar
visited India, lived with Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian languages. One of these was Patanjali's Yogasutras. Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Pata?jali 's Yoga philosophy, but certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated making it more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology. Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD. Later, in the 16th century, the hath yoga text Amritakunda was translated into Arabic and then Persian. Yoga was, however, not accepted by mainstream Sunni and Shia Islam. Minority Islamic sects such as the mystic
movement, particularly in South Asia, adopted Indian yoga practises, including postures and breath control. Muhammad Ghawth, a Shattari Sufi and one of the translators of yoga text in 16th century, drew controversy for his interest in yoga and was persecuted for his Sufi beliefs.
Malaysia's top
body in 2008 passed a , prohibiting
from practicing yoga, saying it had elements of
and that its practice was , therefore . Some Muslims in Malaysia who had been practicing yoga for years, criticized the decision as "insulting." , a women's rights group in Malaysia, also expressed disappointment and said yoga was just a form of exercise. This fatwa is legally enforceable. However, Malaysia's prime minister clarified that yoga as physical exercise is permissible, but the chanting of religious mantras is prohibited.
In 2009, the Council of Ulemas, an Islamic body in Indonesia, passed a fatwa banning yoga on the grounds that it contains Hindu elements. These fatwas have, in turn, been criticized by , a
Islamic seminary in India. Similar fatwas banning yoga, for its link to Hinduism, were issued by the Grand Mufti
in 2004, and by Islamic clerics in Singapore earlier.
In Iran, as of May 2014, according to its Yoga Association, there were approximately 200 yoga centres in the country, a quarter of them in the capital , where groups can often be seen practising in parks. This has been met by opposition among conservatives. In May 2009, Turkey's head of the , , discounted personal development techniques such as
and yoga as commercial ventures that could lead to extremism. His comments were made in the context of reiki and yoga possibly being a form of proselytization at the expense of Islam.
On 11 December 2014, the
approved a resolution establishing 21 June as "", following the call for its adoption by Indian Prime Minister
during his address to
on 27 September 2014. In suggesting one of the two , Modi noted that it is the longest day of the year in the
and that it has special significance in many parts of the world.
The first International Day of Yoga was observed worldwide on 21 June 2015. About 35,000 people, including Modi and many dignitaries, performed 21 yoga asanas for 35 minutes at Rajpath in New Delhi. The day devoted to yoga was observed by millions across the world. The event at Rajpath established two Guinness records – largest Yoga Class with 35,985 people and the record for the most nationalities participating in it—84.
Karel Werner states that the existence of accomplished Yogis in Vedic times cannot be doubted, citing the Kesin hymn of the Rigveda as evidence of a yoga tradition in the Vedic era.
Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas
For instance, Kamalashila (2003), p. 4, states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has
as its ultimate aim." Likewise, Bodhi (1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye … shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, ...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 142: "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" Kamalashila (2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see Epstein (1995), p. 105; and, Fischer-Schreiber et al. (1991), p. 20. As an example from a well-known discourse of the , in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta,
tells Ven.
(in Pali, based on : ānāpānassati?, rāhula, bhāvana? bhāvehi.
translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of ." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Thanissaro, 2006, end note.)
See, for example, ; ; as well as, Kapleau (1989), p. 385, for the derivation of the word "zen" from
"dhyāna."
Secretary Dr. Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of
contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:
"...[T]here is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as 'altered states of consciousness'. In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed 'meditations' ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or 'concentrations' (); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world." (Gethin, 1998, p. 10.)
Gavin Flood: "These renouncer traditions offered a new vision of the human condition which became incorporated, to some degree, into the worldview of the Brahman householder. The ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous with the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals. Indeed, there has been some debate as to whether asceticism and its ideas of retributive action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not have originated outside the orthodox vedic sphere, or even outside Aryan culture: that a divergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction within 'Hinduism' between the world affirmation of the householder and the world negation of the renouncer. However, this dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. Indeed there are continuities between vedic Brahmanism and Buddhism, and it has been argued that the Buddha sought to return to the ideals of a vedic society which he saw as being eroded in his own day."
See also Gavin Flood (1996), Hinduism, p.87–90, on "The orthogenetic theory" and "Non-Vedic origins of renunciation".
Post-classical traditions consider
as the originator of yoga.
Zimmer's point of view is supported by other scholars, such as Niniam Smart, in Doctrine and argument in Indian Philosophy, 1964, p.27–32 & p.76, and S.K. Belvakar &
in History of Indian philosophy, ), p.81 & p.303–409. See Crangle 1994 page 5–7.
Original Sanskrit: ??????? ?? ?? ??????? ???? ?????? ???????? ????? ?????????? ?? ?????? ??? ?????????? ?????? ?????? ?????? ?????????????
Translation 1: Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [???????, yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence... (…)
Translation 2: The illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to the illuminating godhead, to the vast, to the lumin
the one knower of all manifestation of knowledge, he alone orders the things of the sacrifice. Great is the praise of Savitri, the creating godhead.
Flood: "...which states that, having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself."
Original Sanskrit: ???????????????? ???????????????????? ??????????????? ????????????????????????? ????????????? ?????????? ? ??????? ???????????????? ???????????????????? ? ? ??????????? ? ? ???????????? ?? – , VIII.15
Translation 1 by , The Upanishads, The
– Part 1, Oxford University Press: (He who engages in) self study, concentrates all his senses on the Self, never giving pain to any creature, except at the t?rthas, he who behaves thus all his life, reaches the world of , and does not return, yea, he does not return.
Jacobsen writes that "Bodily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the Vedic tradition. The use by Vedic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga."
Whicher believes that "the proto-Yoga of the Vedic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include: concentration, meditative observation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control..."
* Wynne states that "The Nasadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early Brahminic literature, contains evidence suggesting it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. A close reading of this text suggests that it was closely related to a tradition of early Brahminic contemplation. The poem may have been composed by contemplatives, but even if not, an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplative/meditative trend in Indian thought."
Miller suggests that the composition of Nasadiya Sukta and
arises from "the subtlest meditative stage, called absorption in mind and heart" which "involves enheightened experiences" through which seer "explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...".
Jacobsen writes that dhyana (meditation) is derived from Vedic term dhih which refers to "visionary insight", "thought provoking vision".
Ancient Indian literature was transmitted and preserved through an . For example, the earliest written Pali Canon text is dated to the later part of 1st century BCE, many centuries after the Buddha's death.
For the date of this Upanishad see also Helmuth von Glasenapp, from the 1950 Proceedings of the "Akademie der Wissenschaften und Literatur"
The currently existing version of Vai?e?ika Sūtra manuscript was likely finalized sometime between 2nd century BCE and the start of the common era. Wezler has proposed that the Yoga related text may have been inserted into this Sutra later, however, Bronkhorst finds much to disagree on with Wezler.
On the dates of the Pali canon, Gregory Schopen writes, "We know, and have known for some time, that the Pali canon as we have it — and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source — cannot be taken}